Introduction to the Roman Deities

original author Lucius Curtius Philo

An original offline version of this guidebook is available for download here

Index Who are the Roman Gods and Goddesses? Triads and Groups of Deities Attributes of Deities of the Cultus Deorum Romanorum

Who are the Roman Gods and Goddesses?

Since the prehistoric period, humans have pondered the nature of the gods. The earliest peoples of Latium would have looked up at the night sky from their humble farms and considered the divine just as we do today many millennia later. To the ancient Romans, and to modern practitioners of the Cultus Deorum Romanorum, the gods reveal themselves to those who are receptive and astute. Throughout history, the gods have been very much present.

To the Romans the world is filled with gods, the number of gods existing is innumerable. In recognizing and reflecting this vast array of deities, the Religio Romana acknowledges that the gods do not always readily reveal their identities. Because of this awareness rituals and ceremonies often acknowledge unnamed divine powers. Another important basic principle reflecting the polytheistic nature of the Religio Romana is that no individual god or goddess is regarded as all-powerful. However, the Romans do acknowledge that some deities are more influential or superior to others.

Different gods can decide to take particular interests within the mortal world. This divine mind or spirit representing the power by which a god or goddess intervenes in worldly affairs is known by the Latin term, numen. Within the ancient Roman religion, the numen represents the characteristics and qualities unique to a particular god or goddess. Within the Religio Romana, a pious individual should be aware of many of the gods and their numen. Gaining this understanding is a fundamental component of religious education for a Roman. Historically such lessons would have been passed down by parents and family members beginning in early childhood. Today many need to turn to our primary historical sources and the work of scholars to obtain this knowledge. As we learn about the gods and goddesses it is critical to recognize that the understanding of the Roman divine world has never been static and unchanging. Evolution in the practice of worship and religious knowledge has been a constant theme over the centuries.

Interestingly, the numen of a divine power may be associated with similar deities recognized first by other non-Roman cultures and societies. This belief in numen being associated with gods known by various names and traditions facilitates syncretism, the combining of religious traditions across cultures. The ancient Roman religion is syncretistic at its heart and welcoming to the existence of other gods that may not have originally been worshipped at Rome. In fact, syncretism is so ingrained within the Religio Romana that some of the earliest gods worshipped by the Romans were probably first worshipped by other prehistoric Indo-European peoples. It is clear that the worship of most of the deities in Rome existed well before Rome the city was founded. Syncretism probably existed within the Roman Religion from its earliest inception.

Because of syncretism, when considering the gods and goddesses of Rome we must view the deities within the context of a divine melting pot. The original worship of many of the most familiar gods and goddesses originated not in Rome but within some of the surrounding communities, from Latin, Samnite or Sabine Tribes. During a later period, the Etruscans, and Greek communities in southern Italy made significant contributions to the traditions of the Religio Romana and how the gods were understood. By the time Rome was a republic, divine powers worshipped throughout the whole Mediterranean world were being invited and welcomed to Rome. Once in Rome the worship of these gods and goddesses often took on a more distinctive Roman characteristic with unique Romanized traditions. This concept is significant; the study of historical sources reveals that the interpretation and understanding of a gods numen is often uniquely Roman. Therefore, one cannot directly assume that the original Greek or Etruscan elucidation of a deity is the exact Roman equivalent in understanding. Ignoring the Romanization of theological thought around the gods prevents a genuine understanding of the often complex but beautiful nature of the Religio Romana.

Furthermore, due to syncretism, to whom a deity first reveals themselves is not a primary concern. Therefore, knowledge of which community first recognized a deity is not crucial. Instead, a pious Roman acknowledges that the numen and the gods extend back beyond human history to creation itself. The gods and their numen transcend the development of any human culture and Earthly history itself. In this manner, the primary focus of the devout Roman is recognition of the presence of the gods irrespective of culture or tradition. From this awareness, one can then choose to build a meaningful relationship with the divine powers and live a happier more harmonious life.

The ancient sources make it clear the gods have the ability to influence the world of mortals. They work with and through men to bring about the common good. It is crucial to understand that the Romans do not believe that gods act as masters over mortals. The gods do not behave like tyrants. At the core of ancient Roman and the modern Religio Romana, is the awareness that mortals are not slaves to the divine powers. The ancient sources reveal that the gods and goddesses do not demand humiliating devotion. Furthermore, the divine has no desire to control the thoughts or desires of men. Mortals are free to act and think as they please. To understand the Roman relationship with the gods and goddesses one should consider the respectful and friendly relationship that can exist between a patron and a client.

The divine powers can voluntarily play the role of a patron or leading member of a community or family. In this way, a mortal can act as a client and cultivate a relationship with these generous and immensely powerful beings. During ancient times, this building of a client-patron relationship became known as establishing “Pax Deorum”, or peace of the gods. In building such relationships of patronage with the divine, an individual is to be in greater harmony with the hierarchy of the universe. Furthermore, by seeking divine patronage, we can hope to gain a better understanding of the world around us while living more virtuously and happily. To put it simply, achieving Pax Deorum assists one in living well and maximizing one’s transient mortal existence.

Central to the building of a relationship with the divine is the performance of rituals and prayer. Through these means, mortals communicate with the gods and goddesses. Through this form of communication, the gods and goddesses are honoured and thanked. This communication can also involve offering petitions to the gods and goddesses for their intervention. The divine can choose to respond in kind by offering a response through manipulation of the physical world, providing personal insight and understanding, or by supporting the actions performed by mortals. Through this communication, the client-patron relationship described previously is developed and maintained.

Unlike some other polytheistic interpretations of divinities, the Roman gods and goddesses are viewed as benevolent and inherently positive forces. When considering a relationship with the divinities, it is important to remember that no god or goddess demands worship. Contrary to some other religious traditions the Roman deities do not require or necessarily expect worship. This belief is consistent with the idea that mortals and gods are free to think and act as they desire. Instead, the gods allow and occasionally invite mortals to voluntarily develop relationships with them. Thus, we may invite a god or goddess into our lives. However, it is up to the divine power to determine if they will reciprocate the invitation and build a relationship with us. Like us, the gods and goddesses are also free to determine whom they will interact. The Roman gods and goddesses do not get jealous or envious of mortals or other divine powers. The gods and goddesses themselves are believed to coexist with each other in harmony and without conflict. This is because the Roman tradition views the gods as naturally virtuous and not burdened by petty mortal vices or preoccupations. In this manner, the Roman tradition differs significantly from some other polytheistic interpretations.

It is important to understand the gods and goddesses are not assumed to play a benign role in mortal life. It is expected that gods and goddesses will interact with humans in their own regard. They do not solely respond to requests and petitions. The Roman gods and goddesses have the ability to directly, and independently make their intentions known on Earth through physical phenomena. Therefore, a relationship with the gods and goddesses does not have to start with a mortal extending an invitation to a divine power. The deities can also extend an invitation to man. Ancient Romans interpreted this divine communication in the form of lightning, earthquakes, epidemics, and other miraculous events. Such manifestations, when witnessed, were to be taken very seriously. The reason for this is that such events could hold critical messages from the divine powers to mortals. After all, it is regarded that the gods and goddesses do not speak idly. Therefore, during ancient times such observances would often result in experts, in the form of priests, being consulted. At the very least such observations should always inspire reflection and caution.

Despite the deities having supreme power over all the Earth, it is important to note that the ancient Romans did not commonly believe that the gods used this power for malicious acts or to punish. Again, the Roman deities were generally regarded as benevolent. Therefore, incredibly powerful natural events, even if causing damage to mortals, were not frequently seen as divine retribution or a punishment. Instead, devastating events were interpreted more often as critical and grave warnings and messages.

Roman, Greek, and later art pieces all depict impressive creations displaying images of the gods and goddesses of Rome. From exposure to these impressive works many living in the modern age already have an idea as to the supposed appearance and qualities of the gods. For example, many can imagine the images of Jupiter or Venus without an awareness of the details about these deities. The ancient academic and theologian, Varro mentions that such religious imagery was not initially used within the Religio Romana. Instead, during this archaic period, more abstract representations of a god’s numen adorned altars and other sacred places. By the early republican period, the now traditional anthropomorphic imagery had become more commonplace. Scholars suspect this evolution in religious expression may have occurred due to an increasing influence from the Greeks. Ancient Greek religion had a long-standing history of such anthropomorphic artwork as expressions of piety. After this period, depictions of the gods and goddesses in a mortal appearance were frequently adorning Roman temples, public spaces, and domestic environments. Varro states that men designed these visual expressions. He does not claim that these images are literal interpretations of the divine. He concludes that these depictions are the understandings of mortal men and that the benefit of such imagery is to focus and enhance one’s expression of worship. In other words, the image of a god in human form is easier for the mortal mind to understand. In focusing the human mind on an image representing the numen of a god Varro suggests that communication and reverence might be more easily expressed. It should also not be disregarded that the art itself also served as an offering to the deity being honoured. Such beautiful imagery was hoped to be pleasing to the divine, as well as the mortal. Considering the enduring nature of this artwork across the millennia its beauty stands as a testament to the piety and reverence held by the ancients towards the gods and the Religio Romana.

Triads and Groups of Deities

Within the tradition of the Religio Romana, there were historically different groups of gods and goddesses. The groupings are man-made constructs that were developed to reflect the divinities of importance to the Roman community. These groups were not static. They developed and evolved as new insight was acquired on the gods and also in response to the social needs of the time. Within the modern Cultus Deorum Romanorum, it is encouraged that all traditional Roman groupings of the deities be regarded with reverence. Each group offers a unique perspective on the Religio Romana and is of value to the modern practitioner.

I. Archaic Triad

• Iuppiter
• Mars
• Quirinius

This group represents the three principal gods of the pre-Roman and early Roman period. The importance of this triad is reflected in the makeup of the highest priests within the Collegium Pontificum, the chief priestly college of Rome. The most influential of these priests were dedicated to the gods of this triad. The origins of this triad extend into the prehistoric period. Some modern scholars believe that this triad may reflect the social makeup of pre-Roman society. These academics believe that the royal and priestly class could have primarily worshiped Iuppiter, those involved in agricultural and military activities may have primarily worshipped Mars, and those living in more urban locations may have revered Quirinius. However, this divine association with a particular social class is currently mostly speculative.

During the Republican era, this triad was already regarded as ancient. Because of this many of the traditions associated with the archaic triad were already obscure to ancient Romans. Nevertheless, many of the most ancient festivals and the most important religious observances were related to the gods who belong to this triad. The meaning and details behind some of these ancient festivals evolved over the course of time; however, the gods being worshipped and the importance of these annual events remained broadly consistent throughout history.

One feature that is unchanging across all Roman groupings of deities is the primacy of Iuppiter. This god even in the earliest of times was regarded as the most influential and powerful of the gods. In this manner, Iuppiter throughout all of history has been at the forefront of public worship within the Religio Romana.

II. Capitoline Triad

• Iuppiter
• Iuno
• Minerva

This triad of deities formed the principal deities of the public Religio Romana throughout most of Roman history. It appears that this triad received increasing reverence during the Roman monarchy. The adoption of this triad represents a syncretistic development within the Religio Romana. Within the Etruscan religion, goddesses Iuno and Minerva were worshipped within a similar triad. This likely influenced the development of the Roman Capitoline Triad as this early period involved increasing Etruscan cultural influence. The first reference to the Capitoline triad is the shrine of Capitolium Vetus on the Quirinal Hill. Tradition has it that this shrine was constructed by King Numa during his reign which occurred between 715-673 BCE. However, the primacy of the Capitoline triad was most obvious in the famous temple of Iuppiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. Construction of this temple began during the reign of the last king of Rome, and it was completed during the first year of the Roman Republic in 509 BCE. It quickly became the most important temple within the ancient Religio Romana. This temple contained depictions of each of the three deities of the Capitoline triad, and all three were worshipped at this location. From this point forward the gods of this triad formed a core focus of worship within the state Roman religion. Beyond public veneration, these three deities were also extremely popular amongst individual citizens during private worship.

III. Aventine Triad

• Ceres
• Liber and Libera

During ancient times, this triad of deities was most commonly worshipped by the plebeians and those Romans involved in agricultural activities. The origins of this triad stem from an early episode of social disorder in the young Republic. Just prior to the official recognition of the Aventine Triad, Rome was experiencing multiple challenges. The state was at war with the Latins, famine was exacerbating the hardship of war, and the plebeians were protesting their lack of representation in the fledgling republic. Under these circumstances, a dictator was appointed, Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis. In his role as dictator, he vowed to dedicate a temple on the Aventine hill to this triad of deities in 493 BCE. It is highly likely that prior to this episode the Aventine triad of gods was already popular amongst the plebeian class. The dedication of this temple helped appease the social disorder and also rectified the famine. From this time forward the Aventine Triad possessed enormous popularity amongst a large proportion of the population. Besides agriculturalist and plebeian focused worship, this triad also had strong associations with fertility and domestic life. Interestingly, this triad further demonstrates Roman syncretism. Much of the worship of this triad on the Aventine was performed in the Greek rite because it was considered part of the Mysteries of Eleusis. This fact further attests to the increasing multicultural religious influences present in the early Roman Republic.

The Aventine Triad became so closely associated with plebeian Romans that the Temple itself became the type of political headquarters. In this capacity, the political offices of Tribune of the Plebs and the Plebeian Aediles became intimately involved in the affairs and management of the Aventine Temple. This location also served as a symbolic gathering place for plebeians throughout Roman history.

IV. Dii Consentes

• Iuppiter – Iuno
• Neptunus – Minerva
• Mars – Venus
• Apollo – Diana
• Volcanus – Vesta
• Mercurius – Ceres

(note: these deities are displayed paired in the traditional manner of the lectisternium 217 BCE)

By the end of the Republic, twelve deities were most popularly worshipped in the public Religio Romana. This group contained within it the Capitoline Triad mentioned previously. Importantly, this group of gods and goddesses should not be mistaken as an official list of all publicly endorsed deities. Similarly, the Dii Consentes should not be viewed as the direct Roman equivalent of the twelve Greek Olympian gods. There is no such equipment within the Religio Romana. It is critical to remember that the Religio Romana views the world as filled with innumerable gods and goddesses. The Dii Consentes merely serves as a list of deities who tend to be most popularly worshiped publically within the final 200 years of the Roman Republic.

The term “Dii Consentes” comes to us from Varro. This can be translated as, “Council of Deities”. Although Varro does not directly mention the religious celebration of the lectisternium, the same twelve deities were often reflected in this religious ceremony. A lectisternium is literally a banquet with the gods and goddesses. During this celebration, the images of the gods and goddesses are carried on couches. In the presence of these images, sacrifices are made to these deities. After these initial rites, the celebrants gather among the images of the gods and goddesses and have a banquet while honouring the deities represented. Livy mentions the first lectisternium occurring in 399 BCE. However, at this first lectisternium not all twelve gods and goddesses of the Dii Consentes were represented. Livy notes that the first time the typical twelve Roman gods and goddesses were worshipped in this manner was in 217 BCE. Interestingly, another Roman author, Ennius also mentions this group of gods and goddesses being worshipped in this way around the same period. Therefore, the grouping of deities into the Dii Consentes likely originates from this era.

Varro does not mention the Dii Consentes being grouped into pairs. However, at the lectisternium these twelve deities were grouped into six pairs. These pairs were always one male and one female deity. In this anthropomorphic manner, these paired gods and goddesses were implied to be married or lovers. This tradition likely reflects further syncretism within the Religio Romana. Such anthropomorphic traditions within religious ceremonies were a long-standing practice in Greek religion. In this regard, the development of the lectisternium and therefore possibly Varro’s Dii Consentes may reflect further Romanization and incorporation of Greek religious tradition. Beyond this, many of the deities included in this group were originally worshipped outside of Rome. For example, Apollo was originally worshipped by Greek communities. In this respect, the Dii Consentes is a consequence of a uniquely Roman divine melting pot.

V. Dii Selecti

• Ianus
• Saturnus
• Dis
• Tellus

Varro also mentions another group of gods and goddesses that expand upon those listed in the Dii Consentes. This group contains additional deities that are of great importance within the Religio Romana. Within public worship, these additional deities may not have played as prominent a role as the Dii Consentes. Nevertheless, all these gods and goddesses were included in significant public festivals.

VI. Dii Indigetes

• Iuppiter
• Mars
• Quirinus
• Ceres
• Carmenta
• Falacer
• Flora
• Furrina
• Palatua
• Pomona
• Portunus
• Vulcanus
• Volturnus

This group of deities represents those which were worshipped in the earliest Roman and pre-Roman period. Similarly, the archaic triad is reflected in this group for this reason. Because of the significant role these gods and goddesses played in the first years after the founding of Rome their importance is reflected in the chief priestly College, the Collegium Pontificum. Each of these gods has an assigned priest known as a flamen. Together the flamen make up the priests on the Collegium Pontificum. The numen of many of these deities is associated with agricultural activities. This most likely reflects the early importance of agriculture within the fledgling city of Rome.

Like the other groups of deities, such as the Dii Consentes, increased in prominence many of the rites, rituals, and traditions associated with these gods and goddesses became obscure. By the end of the Republican period, many of the details around the cults associated with these deities became unfamiliar to the average Roman.

Nevertheless, the modern Roman Republic acknowledges the importance of these gods and goddesses in the early success of Rome. The flamen of the modern Republic play a leading role in researching and reestablishing the veneration of the gods of the archaic period.

VII. Dii Familiaris

Every pious Roman family, clan (gens) and household has their own unique gods and goddesses. Although many of these gods are worshipped as separate deities unique to each family, these gods are together collectively known by the following names:

• Lares
• Penates
• Genius / Iuno
• Manes

Together these deities are regularly worshipped by Roman families. Collectively the deities of the Dii Familiaris form the core of daily Roman religious life and the Religio Romana.

The domestic gods may also be honoured by the larger community. Private groups such as professional societies and clubs often have their own unique gods which could mirror those of the household. Importantly, not all of the gods and goddesses worshipped domestically are unique to a household. The deities worshipped publicly, such as the Dii Consentes, are often included within domestic veneration.

VIII. Other Important Deities

• Aesculapius
• Bellona
• Bona Dea
• Castor and Pollux
• Consus
• Faunus
• Fortuna
• Iuturna
• Ops
• Pales
• Salus
• Silvanus
• Iuventa

The deities listed above are not included in any readily identifiable group. However, individually they are often referenced in the primary sources. From this, it can be deduced that these gods and goddesses were also regularly worshipped and of great significance to many ancient Romans. Continuing this tradition, many of these deities are frequently revered within the modern era as well.

Basic Attributes of Some of the Principle Deities of the Cultus Deorum Romanorum